The insulin-like growth factor type I receptor (IGF-1R) is a member of the large class of tyrosine kinase receptors, which regulate a variety of intracellular pathways. IGF-1R binds IGF-1, a polypeptide hormone structurally similar to insulin (Laron, Mol. Pathol. 2001, 54:311-16). The IGF-1 receptor is homologous to the insulin receptor (IR), sharing about 70% overall sequence homology with IR (Riedemann and Macaulay, Endocrine-Related Cancer, 2006, 13:S33-43). Not surprisingly, inhibitors developed against IGF-1R tend to show cross-reactivity with the insulin receptor, accounting for at least part of the toxicity profiles of such compounds (Miller and Yee, 2005, Cancer Res. 65:10123-27; Riedemann and Macaulay, 2006).
The IGF system plays an important role in regulating cell proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis and transformation (Jones et al, Endocrinology Rev. 1995. 16:3-34). The IGF system comprises two receptors, insulin like growth factor receptor 1 (IGF-1R; CD221) and insulin like growth factor receptor 2 (IGF-2R; CD222); two ligands, insulin like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) and IGF-2; and several IGF binding proteins (IGFBP-1 to IGFBP-6). In addition, a large group of IGFBP proteases (e.g., caspases, metalloproteinases, prostate-specific antigen) hydrolyze IGF bound IGFBP to release free IGFs, which then interact with IGF-1R and IGF-2R.
IGF-1R comprises two extracellular α subunits (130-135 kD) and two membrane spanning β-subunits (95 kD) that contain the cytoplasmic tyrosine kinase domain. IGF-1R, like the insulin receptor (IR), differs from other receptor tyrosine kinase family members by having a covalent dimeric (α2β2) structure. IGF-1R contains 84% sequence identity to IR in the kinase domain, while the membrane and C-terminal regions share 61% and 44% sequence identity, respectively (Ulrich et al., EMBO J., 1986, 5:2503-12; Blakesley et al., Cytokine Growth Factor Rev., 1996. 7:153-56).
IGF-1 and IGF-2 are activating ligands of IGF-1R. Binding of IGF-1 and IGF-2 to the α-chain induces conformational changes that result in autophosphorylation of each β-chain at specific tyrosine residues, converting the receptor from the unphosphorylated inactive state to the phosphorylated active state. The activation of three tyrosine residues in the activation loop (Tyr residues at 1131, 1135 and 1136) of the kinase domain leads to an increase in catalytic activity that triggers docking and phosphorylation of substrates such as IRS-1 and Shc adaptor proteins. Activation of these substrates leads to phosphorylation of additional proteins involved in the signaling cascade of survival (PI3K, AKT, TOR, S6) and/or proliferation (mitogen-activated protein kinase, p42/p44) (Pollak et al., Nature Reviews Cancer. 2004. 4:505-516; Baserga et al., Biochim Biophys Acta. 1997. 1332:F105-F126; Baserga et al, Int. J. Cancer. 2003. 107:873-77).
IGF-1R has anti-apoptotic effects in both normal and cancer cells (Resnicoff et al., 1995, Cancer Res. 55:2463-69; Kang et al., Am J Physiol Renal Physiol., 2003, 285:F1013-24; Riedemann and Macaulay, 2006). IGF-1R activation has been reported to be significant in the development of resistance to a variety of cytotoxic agents, such as chemotherapeutic agents, radionuclides and EGFR inhibitors (Jones et al., Endocr Relat Cancer 2004, 11:793-814; Warshamana-Greene et al., 2005, Clin. Cancer Res. 11:1563-71; Riedemann and Macaulay, 2006; Lloret et al., 2007, Gynecol. Oncol. 106:8-11). IGF-1R is overexpressed in a wide range of tumor lines, such as melanoma, neuroblastoma, colon cancer, prostate cancer, renal cancer, breast cancer and pancreatic cancer (Ellis et al., 1998, Breast Cancer Treat. 52:175-84; van Golen et al., 2000, Cell Death Differ. 7:654-65; Zhang et al., 2001, Breast Cancer Res. 2:170-75; Jones et al., 2004; Riedemann and Macaulay, 2006). A functional IGF-1R is required for transformation and promotes cancer cell growth, survival and metastasis (Riedemann and Macaulay, 2006).
Attempts have been made to develop IGF-1R inhibitors for use as anti-cancer agents, such as tyrphostins, pyrrolo[2,3-d]-pyrimidine derivatives, nordihydroguaiaretic acid analogs, diaryureas, AG538, AG1024, NVP-AEW541, NVP-ADW742, BMS-5326924, BMS-554417, OSI-906, INSM-18, luteolin, simvastatin, silibinin, black tea polyphenols, picropodophyllin, anti-IGF-1R antibodies and siRNA inhibitors (Arteaga et al., 1998, J Clin Invest. 84:1418-23; Warshamana-Greene et al., 2005; Klein and Fischer, 2002, Carcinogenesis 23:217-21; Blum et al., 2000, Biochemistry 39:15705-12; Garcia-Echeverria et al., 2004, Cancer Cell 5:231-39; Garber, 2005, JNCI 97:790-92; Bell et al., 2005, Biochemistry 44:930-40; Wu et al., 2005, Clin Cancer Res 11:3065-74; Wang et al., 2005, Mol Cancer Ther 4:1214-21; Singh and Agarwal, 2006, Mol Carinog. 45:436-42; Gable et al., 2006, Mol Cancer Ther 5:1079-86; Niu et al., Cell Biol Int., 2007, 31:156-64; Blecha et al., 2007, Biorg Med Chem Lett. 17:4026-29; Qian et al., 2007, Acta Biochim Biophys Sin, 39:137-47; Fang et al., 2007, Carcinogenesis 28:713-23; Cohen et al., 2005, Clin Cancer Res 11:2063-73; Sekine et al., Biochem Biophys Res Commun., 2008, 25:356-61; Haluska et al., 2008, J Clin Oncol. 26:May 20 suppl; abstr 14510; U.S. Patent Application Publ. No. 2006-233810, the Examples section of each of which is incorporated herein by reference). Typically, these agents have tended to cross-react to a greater or lesser extent with both IGF-1R and IR and/or to act as IGF-1R agonists. The use of such agents for cancer therapy has been limited by their toxicity (Riedemann and Macaulay, 2006). A need exists in the field for more effective forms of anti-IGF-1R antibodies and complexes thereof.